Recent studies have found a link between vitamin D levels and a reduction in the risk of many forms of cancer such as breast, colon and lung cancer however studies on the relationship between vitamin D and prostate cancer have yielded mixed results to date.

In this particular study, American researchers looked at the concentrations of vitamin D found in the blood of 749 patients who had been diagnosed with prostate cancer and compared them to the 781 control subjects who were free of prostate cancer,

The researchers found no statistically significant difference between the levels of vitamin D in the blood of the prostate cancer patients compared to the control subjects. Interestingly the researchers did find that high levels of vitamin D were associated with an increased risk of developing a particular form of aggressive prostate cancer.

Vitamin D is generally synthesized in the body through sunlight exposure to the sin but can also be obtained through fortified foods and dietary supplements. Vitamin Dg deficiency is relatively common, particularly amongst the elderly and those living a large distance from the equator.

It is thought vitamin D may prevent and/or slow down the growth of cancer by inhibiting certain enzymes involved in tumor invasion. It is also believed that vitamin D may reduce cancer cell growth and differentiation.

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The study was published this month in the British Journal of Cancer and involved the study of 40,708 Swedish men aged between 45 and 79 who were questioned on their exercise habits. The men were followed from 1998 to 2004 and over this time 3714 men (9.1%%) developed cancer and 1153 men (2.83%) died from the disease.

The researchers found that a one hour per day increase in physical activity was associated with a 2% decrease in the incidence of cancer and a 12% decrease in the risk of dying from cancer. Men who exercised regularly also had greater cancer survival rates than those who did little or no exercise.

Walking and cycling appeared to be particularly beneficial in cancer reduction. Those who spent an average of 30 minutes a day walking or cycling were 34% less likely to develop cancer and had 33% improved cancer survival rates compared to those who rarely walked or cycled.

The researchers also found that even relatively light activities such as doing household chores was beneficial in reducing the risk of developing, or dying from cancer.

Diet was not considered in this study however and it is likely that those men who exercised regularly made healthier dietary choices than the sedentary men. It is therefore possible that the results were due to healthier food consumed by the physically active men rather than exercise.

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The study, conducted by Italian researchers, involved the comparison of over 8,000 people who had been diagnosed with various forms of cancer with 7,990 control subjects who were free of cancer. The study participants were from northern Italy and were younger than 75 years.

The researchers compared fish consumption amongst the cancer patients with those who were free of cancer. Fish consumption was divided into three categories, infrequent fish consumption (less than once a week), occasional fish consumption (once a week), and regular fish consumption (more than once a week).

The researchers found a strong link between fish consumption and a decreased risk of many forms of cancer. The link was strongest for cancers of the oral cavity, pharynx, and rectum, which were 50% less common amongst people consuming 2 or more servings of fish a day compared to those who consumed less than one serving a day.

Cancers of the colon, and esophagus were 40% less likely in regular fish eaters, cancers of the pancreas, stomach, larynx, and ovary were 30% less likely, and cancers of the endometrium were 20% less likely compared to those who consumed fish less than once a week.

Regular fish consumption also appeared to reduce the risk of cancers of the prostate, kidney and gallbladder as well as both Hodgkin disease and non-Hodgkin lymphoma although the link was less significant for these cancers.

Fish contain essential fatty acids (EFA’s) including omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids as well as being rich in many vitamins such as vitamins A, D, E and K and minerals such as calcium, iron, and phosphorus. Omega-3 fatty acids in particular have been shown to inhibit the growth of cancerous cells of the colon, prostate and breast.

Most dietitians recommend people consume between 1 and 2 servings of fish a week. Some people are concerned that toxic substances in fish such as mercury may actually increase cancer risk however this study indicates that this is not necessarily the case. Even so, it is recommended that certain people such as pregnant mothers limit their consumption of certain fish known to contain high amounts of mercury. “Safe” fish that contain little or no mercury are generally the smaller fish varieties which includes salmon, cod, canned tuna, anchovies, sardines, mullet, herring, catfish, shrimp, and flounder.

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The authors of the study reviewed the findings of 634 previous studies to determine the link between alcohol consumption and the risk of various cancers. In total cancer risk was found to be 22% higher in people who consumed four alcoholic drinks a day compared to non-drinkers and 90% higher in those who consumed eight alcoholic drinks a day. Consumption of two alcoholic drinks a day appeared to have little or no effect on cancer risk.

The researchers found conclusive evidence that moderate to heavy alcohol consumption raised the risk of breast, colo-rectal, liver, and stomach cancers as well as cancer of the upper-digestive tract. The researchers also found that no link existed between alcohol and cancers of the bladder, endometrium and pancreas.

Cancers of the upper-digestive tract which includes the mouth, esophagus, larynx, and pharynx were four times more likely in those who consumed four alcoholic drinks a day and a massive 4-6 times greater in those who consumed eight times a day compared to non-drinkers.

Breast cancer risk was found to increased by around 10% with each additional alcoholic drink consumed, this equates to around a two times greater risk of breast cancer for someone consuming an average of eight alcoholic drinks per day. Around 10% of all breast cancers are thought to be attributable to alcohol.

Stomach cancer was only slightly associated with heavy alcohol consumption with eight drinks a day raising stomach cancer risk by around 30%.

Colo-rectal cancers did not appear to be associated with alcohol in women however heavy male drinkers are between 60 and 80% more likely to develop colo-rectal cancers than non-drinkers.

The results were the opposite for liver cancer with women drinkers appearing to be at a greater risk of liver cancer than men. Heavy male drinkers were about 60% more likely to develop liver cancer while females were around nine times more likely to develop the disease compared to non-drinkers. Around 35% of all liver cancers are thought to be alcohol related.

While some evidence existed for a link between alcohol and prostate, kidney, lung, cervical, and ovarian cancers, the evidence was not sufficient to draw definitive conclusions.

Many mechanisms have been proposed to explain the link between alcohol and cancer. Acetaldehyde, a product of alcohol metabolism, is a known carcinogen. Alcohol is also known to increase estrogen levels which may explain the breast cancer link. Alcohol also impairs the bodies ability to absorb folate resulting in a folate deficiency in many heavy drinkers. Low folate levels are thought to increase the risk of several forms of cancer.

Cancer is an extremely common disease, and is thought to become even more so as the world population continues to age. Around 35% of women and almost half of all men will be diagnosed with cancer during their lifetimes. Prostate cancer is the most common form of cancer in men while breast cancer is the most common in women.

It is thought as many as a third of all cancers are preventable through healthy lifestyle choices such as not smoking, consuming five or more servings of fruit and vegetables a day, and being physically active.

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The study, conducted by Swedish researchers and published in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute in March 2006 involved the study of 81,922 men and women from Sweden for an average of 6.8 years.

During the study 135 of the participants developed pancreatic cancer. The researchers found that those who consumed more than 350 micrograms of folate from food per day were a massive 75% less likely to develop pancreatic cancer than those who consumed less than 200 micrograms per day. Interestingly folate intake from supplements did not lead to a reduction in pancreatic cancer risk suggesting that dietary sources of folate are superior to folate supplements in reducing pancreatic cancer risk.

Folate rich foods include corn, broccoli, eggs, peanuts, milk, oranges, grapes, strawberries, dried beans, beef liver, and green leafy vegetables such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and turnip greens. Folic acid is also added to breads/and or cereals in many countries including the United States.

The American recommended daily allowance (RDA) of folate for adults is currently set at 400 micrograms per day. Just one cup of cooked spinach or 150 grams of peanuts provides more than half of an adults daily folate requirement. Despite the abundance of folate in fruit and vegetables, It is thought that as many as half of American adults ge less than the required amount of folate from food sources alone.

The results are backed up by a similar study published in 2004 in the American Journal of Epidemiology. That study found a 34% reduction in pancreatic cancer in those in the highest category for folate intake compared to the lowest intake but a lack of association between folate from supplements and pancreatic cancer risk.

High folate intake has been linked to a reduction in heart disease, strokes, and colo-rectal cancer. Furthermore, folate may also reduce the risk of breast, esophageal, and lung cancer although the evidence is less conclusive in these cases.

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Aspirin was most strongly associated with a reduction in estrogen receptor positive (ER-positive) breast cancer. The study found that while aspirin reduced breast cancer risk slightly, other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID’s) did not appear to offer similar benefits.

The study, conducted by researchers at the US National Cancer Institute in Rockville, USA, focused on 136,408 women aged between 51 and 72 and who were free of cancer at the beginning of the study in 1996-1997.

By the end of 2003, 4501 (3.3%) of the women had developed breast cancer. The study found no association between the use of non-aspirin NSAID’s and breast cancer or between occasional aspirin use and breast cancer. The study did however find that daily aspirin users were 7% less likely to develop breast cancer and in particular 16% less likely to develop ER-positive breast cancer than those who did not use aspirin at all.

Around 18% of the study participants reported daily aspirin use, a further 16% used aspirin 1 to 6 times a week, 32% used aspirin between once a week and once a year while 34% of the women had not used aspirin in the past year.

ER positive breast cancer is the most common form of breast cancer making up around 75% of total cases. ER positive cancer means the breast cancer cells have estrogen receptors on their surface. Breast cancers can also be classified as progesterone-receptor positive (PR+) or negative (PR-). ER positive breast cancers typically have a slightly better prognosis than ER-negative breast cancers because they are more likely to respond to hormonal therapy.

Aspirin inhibits the action of the COX-2 enzyme which is responsible for inflammation and pain, the over expression of the COX-2 has been implicated in many steps of cancer development including the inhibition of cell death (apoptosis) and the increased division of cancerous cells.

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The study, published in the American Journal of Epidemiology in 2004, involved comparing the diabetes status of 1,110 individuals from the US Physicians Heath Study who had been diagnosed with prostate cancer and comparing them to 1,110 control subjects who were free of prostate cancer.

In the group who had prostate cancer, 50 (4.5%) of the individuals had been diagnosed with diabetes compared to 71 (6.4%) of the individuals in the control group. After adjusting the results for potential confounding factors, people with diabetes were 36% less likely to develop prostate cancer than those without diabetes.

The association was particularly strong for advanced stages of prostate cancer with diabetics 52% less likely to develop advanced prostate cancer. In contrast early stage prostate cancer was not found to be associated with diabetes.

Animal studies have found that diabetes tends to reduce both testosterone levels in the blood and the size of the prostate gland, however once insulin is administered to the animals testosterone and prostate gland size increase to normal levels. This suggests that low levels of insulin reduces the production of testosterone. High circulating levels of testosterone have been found to increase prostate cancer risk in several studies.

Prostate cancer is the most common form of cancer in men with 18% of American men developing the disease and 3% dying from it. Prostate cancers tend to be slow growing and if detected early, prostate cancer has an extremely high survival rate. The survival rate is 99.8% if prostate cancer is detected before it has metastasized.

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The study, published in the journal Preventive Medicine in 2004, involved the analysis of data from 156 studies involving a total of 116,702 individuals in order to determine the effects of alcohol consumption on cancer rates.

Researchers found that alcohol consumption was strongly associated with cancer of the larynx, esophagus, pharynx and oral cavity. Alcohol consumption was also found to be weakly associated with cancer of the breast, liver, rectum, and colon.

At a level of 25g of ethanol consumption per day, the equivalent of two beers a day, there was an 86% greater risk of developing cancers of the oral cavity and pharynx, a 43% and 39% greater risk of cancers of the larynx and esophagus respectively, a 25% greater risk of breast cancer and a 19% greater risk of liver cancer. Cancers of the colon and rectum were only weakly associated with this level of alcohol consumption.

In those people that consumed 100g of ethanol per day, the equivalent of eight beers per day, the risk of cancer rose dramatically. Cancers of the oral cavity and pharynx showed a 554% increase, cancer of the larynx and esophagus increased by 286% and 259% respectively, breast cancer by 141%, liver cancer by 81%, and rectal and colon cancers by 42% and 21% respectively.

Cancers in other areas such as the stomach, pancreas, and prostate are not thought to be linked to alcohol use.

In total, studies estimate that around 3.6% of all cancers worldwide are attributable to alcohol consumption. The figure is 5.2% in men and 1.7% in women due to the large percentage of heavy drinkers being male. In women, breast cancers make up around 60% of the cancer cases attributable to alcohol.

Despite the increased risks, alcohol consumption is still a relatively minor cancer risk factor compared to other risk factors such as obesity and smoking. Cigarette and tobacco use is the single largest cause of cancer with an estimated 30% of all cancers worldwide attributable to cigarette smoking.

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A recent study, published in the American Journal of Epidemiology in 2002, compared the alcohol consumption histories of 464 people who had been diagnosed with hepatocellular carcinoma to the drinking history of 828 control subjects who were free of hepatocellular carcinoma and other liver disease.

The researchers found that as “peak” intake of alcohol increased, so did the odds of developing liver cancer. Peak intake was defined as the maximum intake of alcohol in a decade of an individuals lifetime.

In men, no significant correlation between alcohol and liver cancer was observed at levels less than 60g/day of ethanol. Those who consumed between 61 and 80g/day of ethanol had 2.4 times greater odds of developing liver cancer than those who consumed no alcohol while those who consumed 81-100g/day of ethanol had 4.2 times greater odds of developing the disease. Those men who consumed the most ethanol (more than 140g/day) had 11 times greater odds of developing liver cancer.

In women those who consumed between 60 and 80g of ethanol were 3.1 times more likely to develop liver cancer than women who did not drink while women who consumed more than 80g of ethanol per day were 16.5 times more likely to develop liver cancer.

Around 10% of the men in the study claimed to have consumed more than 140g of ethanol a day during their “peak” decade while around 5% of women claimed to have consumed more than 80g of ethanol per day. One can of beer typically contains between 10 and 15g of ethanol.

The researchers also looked at the participants age when drinking began and the duration of drinking however neither of these factors was associated with liver cancer.

The authors concluded that “the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma increased with increasing level of alcohol intake, irrespective of duration of consumption and age at start”.

It is believed that chronic consumption of ethanol may have carcinogenic effects on certain organs, especially the liver which must process the alcohol. Excessive alcohol consumption also leads to cirrhosis of the liver which often leads to liver cancer.

Hepatocellular carcinoma is the most common form of liver cancer making up over 90% of all liver cancers. Liver cancer carries an extremely poor prognosis with just 10% of people living for more than 5 years after diagnosis with the disease. Only pancreatic cancer has a worse 5 year survival rate.

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The research, conducted by the National Cancer Institute looked at data from 184,418 women in order to explore the link between breast cancer and alcohol consumption.

During the seven year study period, 5,461 women developed breast cancer. 70% of the women in the study reported some alcohol consumption during the study. The researchers found that alcohol consumption was associated with an increase in a particular type of breast cancer called ER+/PR+ where both estrogen receptors and progesterone receptors are over expressed.

This form of cancer was found to be 7% more likely in women who consumed less than one drink a day compared to those who did not consume alcohol. Those who consumed between one and two standard drinks a day were 32% more likely to develop breast cancer and those who consumed three or more standard drinks a day were 51% more likely to develop breast cancer. The increased risks remained the same regardless of whether the women consumed beer, wine, or spirits.

The researchers found alcohol consumption also increased the risk of the relatively rare ER+/PR- form of breast cancer where only estrogen receptors are over expressed. Alcohol consumption was not associated with an increased risk of developing ER-/PR- breast cancer where neither of the receptors are over expressed.

Around 70% of all breast cancer cases show over expression of estrogen receptors with ER+/PR+ the most common form of breast cancer in women. It is thought that over expression of estrogen receptors is linked to breast cancer by two mechanisms. First estrogen receptors are thought to stimulate the growth and replication of mammary cells which are found in the breast. Increased replication of cells increases the chances of a cancer causing mutation occurring. Secondly estrogen receptor over expression increases estrogen metabolism. One of the metabolic pathways by which estrogen is broken down is known to result in several cancer causing products.

The researchers believe that alcohol interferes with the metabolism of estrogen, which in turn leads to increased risk of estrogen sensitive breast cancer.

The research is to be presented at the 2008 annual meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research which is held between April 12 and 16 in San Diego.

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The largest study on the impact of smoking on the probability of developing cancer is the Cancer Prevention Study 2, which was funded by the American Cancer society. The study involved over 1.2 million people so provides quite accurate data on the precise risks of cancer from smoking.

The relative risk (RR) of death from cancer for a smoker compared to a non-smoker is a number that represents how many times more likely a smoker will die from cancer compared to a non-smoker.

The American Cancer society calculated the following relative risks of some common forms of cancer for smokers, they are listed below for men, and women respectively.

Lung cancer: 23.3 (men) & 12.7 (women)
Cancers of larynx: 14.6 & 13
Cancers of mouth, lip & pharynx: 10.9 & 5.1
Esophageal cancer: 6.6 & 7.8
Pancreatic cancers: 2.3 for both men & women
Stomach cancers: 2.0 & 1.4
Cervical cancer: 1.6 (women)
Bladder cancer: 3.2 & 2.2
Kidney & other urinary cancers: 2.7 & 1.3
Acute myeloid leukemia: 1.9 & 1.1

Of these, lung cancer is by far the most common cancer and it also carries the highest relative risk for men and second highest for women. It is thought the average smoker has about a 1 in 6 chance (16%) of developing lung cancer in their lifetime. The average non-smoker on the other hand has less than a 1% chance of developing lung cancer in their lifetime.

It is also interesting to view the percentage of cancer deaths for each cancer type that are attributable to smoking.

Lung: 80%
Cancer of the Larynx: 78%
Cancer of the Esophagus: 74%
Cancers of the Mouth, lip & pharynx: 61%
Bladder: 39%
Cancer of the Pancreas: 22%
Kidney: 21%
Stomach: 20%
Acute Myeloid Leukemia: 17%
Cervix: 13%

Smoking is also responsible for an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases such as coronary and ischemic heart disease, strokes, and aneurysms because it causes hypertension (chronic high blood pressure) and atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries). Smoking also increases the risk of developing, and subsequently dying from other lung diseases such as pneumonia and bronchitis.

The good news is that after quitting smoking, much of the damage caused by smoking is reversible. The risks of developing smoking related cancers falls to the same or similar levels as non-smokers after about 15 to 20 years.

After 20 years without smoking, an ex-smokers risk of developing lung cancer is just 1.5 times higher than someone who has never smoked and is around 10 times lower than it would be had they smoked for those 20 years.

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One of the largest studies on the relationship between fruit and vegetable consumption and pancreatic cancer risk was published in September 2005 in the journal Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. The study involved analyzing the dietary habits of 532 individuals diagnosed with pancreatic cancer and comparing them to 1,701 healthy individuals.

After controlling for age at time of diagnosis, gender, and total calories consumed per day, those in the highest quartile for vegetable consumption had 55% reduced odds of developing pancreatic cancer compared to those in the lowest quartile of vegetable consumption. Those in the highest quartile of fruit consumption had 28% reduced odds of developing pancreatic cancer compared to those in the lowest quartile of fruit consumption.

The vegetables that appeared to provide the greatest reduction in pancreatic cancer were dark green vegetables such as spinach and silver beet. Yellow vegetables, carrots, beans, onions, garlic, and cruciferous vegetables such as cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, bok choy, and turnips were also strongly correlated with a reduction in pancreatic cancer risk. Potatoes, tomatoes, and light green vegetables were not associated with a reduction in pancreatic cancer risk.

Furthermore, those who consumed more than nine servings of fruit and vegetables a day had 51% reduced odds of pancreatic cancer compared to those eating less than five servings of fruit and vegetables.

Raw vegetables appeared to reduce pancreatic cancer risk more-so than cooked vegetables. Cooking vegetables in animal fat was associated with an increased risk of pancreatic cancer compared to those who didn’t cook vegetables in animal fat.

Pancreatic cancer is a significant health problem in the United States due to both it’s difficulty to detect and treat. Pancreatic cancer sufferers have a poorer prognosis than any other form of cancer with just 3-4% of those diagnosed with pancreatic cancer still alive five years after diagnosis. In the United States, pancreatic cancer is behind only breast, colo-rectal, and lung cancer in terms of cancer deaths per year. Pancreatic cancer is about 50% more common in men compared to women and effects blacks around 30% more than whites.

The incidence of pancreatic cancer increases dramatically with age. More than 80% of pancreatic cancer cases are diagnosed in people over the age of 60. While age standardized rates of pancreatic cancer appear to be quite stable, the number of cases diagnosed each year will continue to increase as the population ages.

While the underlying causes of pancreatic cancer are to a large extent unknown - smoking, obesity, low consumption of fruit and vegetables, high fasting blood sugar levels and diabetes appear to be risk factors for the disease.

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Researchers divided cancerous pancreatic cells into two groups, one group was treated with a 50 micrograms/milliliter resveratrol solution while the other group did not receive the resveratrol treatment. Red wine contains resveratrol at concentrations of around 5 to 10 micrograms/milliliter but can be as high as 40 micrograms/mililiter in some wines.

The group of cells that did receive the treatment showed reduced functioning of the cells mitochondria. A functioning mitochondria is vital to a cell because it produces the majority of the cells supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) which is the cells energy source. The resveratrol also lowered the functioning of proteins in the cell membranes which makes the cancerous pancreatic cells less resistant to chemotherapy.

Furthermore, when chemotherapy was applied to the cancerous cells that had been treated with resveratrol, a process called apoptosis (programmed cell death) was triggered.

Researchers believe that resveratrol may become an important part of cancer therapy because it appears to cripple cancerous cells, making them more sensitive to radiation and chemotherapy treatments while leaving healthy cells unharmed.

The anti-cancer properties of resveratrol are well known, a study published in 2006 found that men who drink four or more glasses or red wine each week were half as likely to develop prostate cancer compared to men who did not drink red wine. Red wine consumption has also been linked to lower rates of heart disease, colon cancer, lung cancer, and skin cancer.

The richest source of resveratrol is red wine, other sources of resveratrol include peanuts, cranberries, blueberries, raspberries, white wine (contains about 1/10th of the resveratrol found in red wine) and grape juice.

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The largest of these studies was carried out at the Research Center for Cancer Prevention and Screening at the National Cancer Center (NCC) in Tokyo, Japan. Data was gathered by questioning 49,920 men between the ages of 40 and 69 on their green tea drinking habits. During the 11 year study period, 404 of the men were diagnosed with prostate cancer (0.8%). 271 of the individuals had localized prostate cancer while 114 had advanced prostate cancer. 19 of the cases were of an indeterminate stage.

The study found that while green tea was only slightly correlated with a reduction in prostate cancer cases, there was a significant reduction in the number of advanced cases of prostate cancer in tea drinkers. In those who consumed 3-4 cups of tea a day, relative risk of prostate cancer was reduced by 17% while in those who consumed 5 or more cups of green tea daily, prostate cancer risk was reduced by as much as 48%.

The authors concluded that green tea consumption was associated with a decreased risk of developing advanced prostate cancer.

A Chinese study published in 2003 found an even greater correlation between green tea consumption and prostate cancer. The study was carried out by comparing 130 individuals in south-east China who had been diagnosed with prostate cancer to 274 control subjects who did not have prostate cancer.

This study found that those diagnosed with prostate cancer were less likely to be tea drinkers and that the longer an individual had been drinking green tea and the more green tea they consumed, the less likely they were to develop prostate cancer.

In total 55.4% of those diagnosed with prostate cancer were tea drinkers compared to 79.9% of the control group. Those who had been drinking green tea for over 40 years had an 88% reduced risk of developing prostate cancer, while those who consumed more than 1.5kg of green tea leaves yearly were 91% less likely to develop prostate cancer.

Finally, in an Italian study individuals who were at high risk of developing prostate cancer took either 600mg of green tea catechin (GTC) supplements daily for a year or a placebo. Just 1 of the 32 individuals who received the green tea catechin supplement developed prostate cancer during the one year study period compared to 9 out of 30 of the control group.

Catechins are polyphenolic antioxidants that make up approximately 25% of the dry weight of a fresh tea leaf.

Researchers believe one of the catechins in green tea called epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) helps prevent cancer by encouraging apoptosis (a form of programmed cell death) of cancerous cells while leaving healthy cells unharmed. Furthermore high doses of green tea have been found to decrease testosterone levels and repress the androgen receptor gene - androgens have been shown to stimulate prostate cancer cell growth.

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German researchers examined data from the 5 and 10 year survival rates of patients aged 15 or older diagnosed with Non-Hodgkin lymphoma. The researchers found both 5-year and 1–year survival rates for Non-Hodgkin lymphoma have improved significantly from 1990-1992 to 2002-2004.

Five-year survival rates increased from 50.4 to 66.8 percent well ten year survival rates increased from 39.4 to 56.3 percent. While improvements were seen across all ages and both sexes, and regardless of the stage of the disease, improvements in survival rates were less in black patients, particularly young black patients.

Those aged under 45 years had the biggest improvements in survival rates with an increase of 26.8 percent in 5-year survival rates and an increase of 27.1 percent in 10-year survival rates.

The improvements in life expectancy for Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma sufferers are thought to have came about through two medical advances. The first being the introduction of antibody therapy as a viable treatment for the disease. The drug rituximab, which is an antibody therapy is now a key weapon in the fight against Non-Hodgkin lymphoma. The combination of chemotherapy and antibody therapy is an effective combination and in many cases allows Non-Hodgkin sufferers to recover completely from the disease.

The second improvement in life expectancy has came about through improved HIV treatments. HIV sufferers are at increased risk of developing Non-Hodgkin lymphoma because the virus attacks the immune system.

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is the collective name for a group of cancers that affect the lymphatic system, the disease has gone from being a relatively rare form of cancer a few decades ago to being one of the most common forms of cancer. It is currently the fifth most common form of cancer in the United States and an individual has about a 2% chance of developing Non-Hodgkin lymphoma at some point in their lifetime.

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is slightly more common in whites than blacks and affects males more than females. The disease is also much more common amongst older individuals with those aged 75-79 years old being at about a ten times greater risk of developing the disease than 30-34 year olds. As the population ages, Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is expected to become increasingly common.

While the precise causes of Non-Hodgkin lymphoma are unknown, those with impaired immune systems, such as those taking immuno-suppressant drugs or suffering from HIV are at a greater risk of developing the disease. Studies have also shown that the risk of developing Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is lower among those who eat large amounts of vegetables, particularly cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, cabbage, and kale.

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The research, which is reported in the March 2008 issue of the American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, followed 77,126 American men and women from the state of Washington aged between 50 and 76. The study participants were asked to fill out surveys asking about their past and present vitamin supplement use, smoking habits, medical history and family history of lung cancer.

During the four year study period 512 participants developed lung cancer. After adjusting for other factors the researchers found no reduction in lung cancer due to vitamin E, vitamin C or folic acid supplementation.

The researchers did find that the risk of developing lung cancer increased by 5 percent for each 100mg per day increase in vitamin E supplementation. The increase in lung cancer risk was largely confined to smokers however, lung cancer risk for smokers increased by 11 percent for each 100mg per day increase in vitamin E. A smoker taking 400mg of vitamin E per day was as much as 44 percent more likely to develop lung cancer as a smoker not taking the supplement. Amongst non-smokers, vitamin E had no significant effect on lung cancer risk.

The increased lung cancer risk appears only in relatively high doses of Vitamin E in excess of 100mg per day. The recommended daily intake of Vitamin E is just 10-20mg per day and a person would be unlikely to exceed 100mg of Vitamin E from dietary sources alone. Sources rich in Vitamin E include peanuts and peanut butter, almonds, hazelnuts, leafy green vegetables such as spinach and broccoli, kiwifruit and mangoes.

Other studies have linked moderate Vitamin E use to a decrease in some forms of cancer such as prostate cancer. One Finnish study found a Vitamin E dosage of 50mg per day decreased the probability of developing prostate cancer by 32 percent and the probability of dying from the cancer by 41 percent.

The results of this study indicate that smokers are unlikely to be able to reduce their risk of developing lung cancer through vitamin supplementation. A smokers best chances of avoiding lung cancer come by quitting smoking. After ten years without smoking, the risk of developing lung cancer is about half what it would’ve been had the individual not quit smoking.

The main risk factor for developing lung cancer is overwhelmingly smoking which is thought to be responsible for over 85 percent of all lung cancers. Radon gas, asbestos exposure and marijuana use are other risk factors associated with lung cancer.

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• Folate May Reduce Pancreatic Cancer Risk
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The largest of these studies is the Korean Cancer Prevention Study (KCPS) which involved more than 1.2 million Koreans aged between the ages of 30 and 95. During the ten year study period, a total of 26,473 cancer deaths were recorded.

The researchers found that death rates from cancer were 29 and 23 percent higher for men and women respectively for those in the group with the highest fasting blood glucose levels (>140mg/dL) compared to those in the group with the lowest fasting glucose levels (< 90mg/dL).

Pancreatic cancer had the strongest association with blood sugar levels. Women in the highest blood sugar group had more than twice the risk of developing pancreatic cancer compared to those in the lowest group while men in the highest group had a 91 percent increased risk of pancreatic cancer.

Other cancers that showed a correlation with blood sugar levels in men were esophageal, liver, colorectal and bile duct cancers. In women cancers of the liver and cervix were correlated with blood sugar levels. The researchers estimated that as many as 3 percent of all cancer deaths could have been attributed to having fasting blood glucose levels in excess of 90 mg/dl.

Individuals who had been diagnosed with diabetes were also found to have a greater risk of cancer.

Another study of 64,500 women conducted by Swedish researchers found similar results. The study linked elevated fasting blood sugar levels with an increased incidence of cancers of the pancreas, skin, womb, and urinary tract. In younger women aged under 49 years there was also a link between breast cancer and high blood sugar levels.

Women with the highest 25 percent of fasting blood sugar levels were 26 percent more likely to develop some form of cancer compared to those in the lowest quarter of blood sugar levels.

The reasons that high blood sugar levels increases the probability of developing some cancers are unknown. However one possible mechanism is that higher blood sugar levels may indicate increased stress on organs such as the pancreas (which produces insulin in response to high sugar levels) and the liver (which can store glucose in the form of glycogen).

Another possibility is that, because cancer cells require more glucose than normal cells, a high blood sugar environment in the body may increase cancerous cell growth and division. Studies have also shown that cancer cells deprived of sufficient glucose levels self destruct through a process called apoptosis.

The best ways for an individual to reduce blood sugar levels include consuming high fiber, unprocessed foods, limiting sugary foods and beverages, consuming foods with a low glycemic index, and getting at least 30 minutes of exercise at least three times a week.

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• Vitamin & Mineral Supplementation Higher In Cancer Survivors

The study, conducted by researchers at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York found that breast cancer surgery patients recovered faster from surgery, required less medication, and experienced less anxiety, discomfort and pain than patients who did not undergo hypnosis.

The study involved over 200 women undergoing breast surgery at the Mount Sinai Medical Center. Each patient was randomly assigned to one of two groups. The first group received a 15 minute hypnosis session which involved suggestive visual imagery, relaxation techniques, and suggestions to reduce pain, fatigue and anxiety.

The other group did not receive hypnosis but instead received a 15 minute “attention-control” intervention which involved a supportive discussion between the therapist and patient.

Results of the trial showed that patients from the hypnosis group spend over 10 minutes less in surgery (43 minutes compared to 54 minutes for the control group). This represented a reduction in the total surgery cost of $772.71 per patient. The women in the hypnosis group also required less anesthesia during the surgery than the control group.

Furthermore, the hypnosis patients reported less severe negative effects such as pain intensity, pain unpleasantness, discomfort, emotional distress, nausea and fatigue. Women in the hypnotized group had an average pain score of 22.4 compared to 47.8 in the control group. The nausea score of the hypnotized women was just 6.5 compared to 25.4 in the control group.

According to the authors: “Together, the combination of potential improvements in symptom burden for the hundreds of thousands of women facing breast cancer surgery each year and the economic benefit for institutions argues persuasively for the more widespread application of brief presurgical hypnosis,”

“We’re not going to make you sing like Madonna, we’re going to help you feel better. We’ll help you concentrate, focus your attention.” added lead researcher Dr Guy H. Montgomery, PhD who is the Associate Professor for Oncological Sciences at Mount Sinai School of Medicine.

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The study, published in the Journal of Clinical Oncology found that between 64 and 81 percent of cancer survivors had reported using some form of vitamin or mineral supplement while between 26 and 77 percent reported taking some form of multivitamin.

In the general population some form of vitamin or mineral is used by around half the population with a third taking some form of multivitamin. Supplement use was highest amongst women and those with higher education. Breast cancer survivors had the highest supplement use with up to three-quarters of survivors having used supplements. Prostate cancer survivors had the lowest use of supplements with only 26% reporting having used vitamin or mineral supplements.

The study also found that between 14 and 32 percent of survivors began taking vitamin supplements after they were diagnosed with cancer. The study also found that many cancer patients were often unwilling to disclose information about the supplements they were taking to their doctors with between 31 and 68 percent not telling their doctors this information.

While the study raises the possibility that vitamin and mineral supplementation can improve cancer outcomes, comparisons with vitamin and mineral supplementation among those who die of cancer needs to be carried out to determine whether supplement use is linked with an increased probability of survival. The study also raises concerns about patients not disclosing full information about their supplement use to their doctors as some supplements may have adverse effects, especially when combined with more conventional cancer treatments.

According to senior author Cornelia Ulrich “Some vitamins, such as folic acid, may be involved in cancer progression while others, such as St. John’s wort, can interfere with chemotherapy. However, we really need more research to understand whether use of these supplements can be beneficial or do more harm than good.”

• Vitamin E Increases Lung Cancer Risk In Smokers
• Vitamin D Not Effective In Reducing Prostate Cancer Risk
• Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Sufferers Are Living Longer
• Radiotherapy As Good As Surgery For Bladder Cancer Treatment
• High Blood Sugar Raises Liver, Pancreatic Cancer Risk

The most comprehensive study on the environmental and lifestyle factors responsible for cancer is known as “The Cancer Prevention Study 2″. The study was conducted from 1982 to 1997 and followed 1.2 million American men and women, collecting information on their diet, medical history, weight and exercise levels among other things.

The study found that obese individuals were far more likely to develop many cancers compared to those in a healthy weight range. In men with a body mass index (BMI), the relative risk of dying from liver cancer was 4.5 times greater than those in a healthy weight range. Furthermore their risk of dying from pancreatic cancer was 2.61 times greater, their stomach cancer risk 1.94 times greater, colo-rectal cancer risk 1.84 times greater and kidney cancer risk 1.70 times greater.

In total, men with a BMI greater than 35 were at around a 40% greater risk of dying from some form of cancer when compared to men with a healthy BMI (between 18.5 and 24.9). At even higher BMI levels, cancer risks increased further, men with a BMI greater than 40 had a 52% greater risk of dying from some form of cancer compared to those in the healthy weight range.

The results were even more dramatic in women - the risk of dying from uterine cancer was a massive 6.25 times greater in women with a BMI over 40. Kidney cancer risk was 4.75 times greater while the risks of dying from cancers of the cervix, pancreas and breast were all more than 2 times greater in women with a BMI over 40 compared to those with a healthy BMI. In total, women with a BMI over 40 had an 88% greater risk of dying from some form of cancer compared to women in the healthy weight range.

Other cancers that were shown to be more prevalent amongst obese individuals included non-Hodgkin lymphoma, prostate cancer, and bladder cancer.

So why are overweight individuals more likely to develop and subsequently die from cancer? It is possible that excess weight itself directly increases cancer risk through some mechanism. It is also possible that the lower exercise levels seen in overweight people effect cancer rates. It is known for example that colo-rectal cancer rates are lower amongst those who exercise regularly and that breast cancer risk can also be reduced by even small amounts of physical activity.

A further possibility is that overweight people are more likely to have chronic high blood sugar levels and diabetes. High blood sugar levels have been implicated in both pancreatic and liver cancer.

Whatever the reason, the evidence is compelling. Overweight individuals are much more likely to develop cancer than those in a normal weight range. If you are overweight, even a small loss in weight can increase your chances of staying cancer free by a significant amount.

• Overweight Women More Likely To Develop Breast Cancer
• Regular Exercise May Cut Cancer Risk In Men
• Heavy Drinking Raises Liver Cancer Risk
• Diabetics Are Less Likely To Develop Advanced Prostate Cancer
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