The study involved 23,995 Japanese women aged between 40 and 79 who were followed for an eight year period. Over the course of the study, 143 women developed breast cancer. The researchers found that women who slept for 6 or less hours a night were 62% more likely to develop breast cancer compared to women who slept for an average of 7 hours a night. 8 hours of sleep a night was associated with a slightly increased risk of breast cancer when compared to 7 hours however this result was not statistically insignificant. 9 or more hours of sleep a night was associated with a 28% reduction in breast cancer risk when compared to 7 hours sleep.

It is believed that melatonin, which is produced by the pineal gland to regulate the circadian rhythm, may reduce the risk of breast cancer by suppressing the release of the hormone estrogen. Estrogen stimulates the growth of ER-positive breast cancers which have estrogen receptors on the surface of the cancerous cells. Almost two-thirds of all breast cancers are ER-positive.

Melatonin production is increased under dark conditions and during sleep. Night shift workers, women who sleep in a relatively light environment (> 1 lux), and women who sleep for less than six hours during the night tend to produce less melatonin and are at an increased risk of developing ER-positive breast cancer. A study, published in the journal Epidemiology in 2001, found that the odds of developing breast cancer were 50% greater in women who worked at night time for at least half the year.

Women who have been diagnosed with ER-positive breast cancer should ensure they get a minimum of 7 hours sleep a night in dark conditions because melatonin can considerably slow the growth of ER-positive breast tumors. Synthetic melatonin supplements are often used by women suffering from breast cancer however scientific evidence on their effectiveness has been mixed to date.

• Regular Aspirin Use Leads To A Small Reduction In Breast Cancer Risk
• Two Drinks A Day Increases Breast Cancer Risk By 32%
• Breast Cancer More Likely In Overweight Women
• Walnuts Slow Growth Of Breast Cancer Cells
• Exercise Reduces Colon Cancer Risk By Up To 44 Percent

The study, conducted by researchers at the Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology at the Marshall University School of Medicine in West Virginia, USA, involved the implantation of human breast cancer cells in a group of 22 mice. The tumors were allowed to grow to between 3mm and 5mm in size at which point the mice were divided into two groups. The first group received a walnut rich diet where walnuts constituted 18.5% of the daily caloric intake of the mice, the equivalent of 56 grams of walnuts a day in humans. The second group were fed a corn oil based diet that contained identical proportions of vitamins, minerals, and fiber to the walnut based diet.

The researchers found a significant reduction in the rate of tumor growth in the walnut fed group. The tumors in the walnut group grew at a rate of 2.9mm per day compared to 14.6mm per day in the control group.

The researchers noted that cell proliferation, or the rate that cells divide, was much lower in the walnut fed mice however the rate of cell apoptosis (programmed cell death) was similar in both groups.

The researchers believe that a particular omega-3 acid in walnuts known as alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) may be responsible for their cancer fighting effects. Walnuts, along with flaxseed, kiwifruit, soy beans, and canola oil are some of the few plant based sources of ALA. Omega-3 fatty acids are potent anti-inflammatory compounds. Chronic inflammation is thought to increase an individuals susceptibility to cancer and might create conditions in the body where cancerous cells can thrive.

Walnuts are also rich sources of vitamin E, polyphenols, and carotenoids, which are all powerful antioxidants. Melatonin, a naturally occurring hormone, is also found in walnuts. Melatonin can enhance the function of the immune system and has been shown to inhibit cancerous cell growth in some studies.

• Resveratrol, Found In Red Wine, Kills Pancreatic Cancer Cells
• Lack Of Sleep Increases Breast Cancer Risk By Inhibiting Melatonin Production
• Broccoli Rich Diets Ward Off Prostate Cancer
• Catechins In Green Tea Prevent Advanced Prostate Cancer
• High Blood Sugar Raises Pancreatic, Liver, & Colorectal Cancer Risk

The research was conducted by scientists at Kaiser Permanente in Oakland, California, and involved the study of 84,170 men aged between 45 and 69.

During the six year study, 210 of the men developed lung cancer. The researchers looked at the effect of beer, red wine, white wine, and liquor consumption on the risk of developing lung cancer. For individuals who had ever smoked, red wine was associated with a significant decrease in the risk of developing lung cancer. Lung cancer risk was lowered by 2% for each drink of red wine consumed per month. For heavy smokers, the risk of lung cancer was decreased by 4% for each additional drink of red wine.

The researchers calculated that one or two standard drinks of red wine each day could reduce a smokers risk of developing lung cancer by 60%.

In contrast, no association was found between white wine, beer, or liquor, and the risk of developing lung cancer.

The researchers could not establish a clear relationship between lung cancer and red wine in non-smokers. This was due in part to the very small number of non-smokers in the study who went on to develop lung cancer. The lifetime risk of developing lung cancer is just 1.3% in non-smokers compared to more than 13% for smokers.

The authors believe that the relatively high levels of beneficial chemicals and antioxidants found in red wine might explain the observed results. In particular resveratrol, which is found almost exclusively in red wine, has been found to inhibit cancerous cell growth in the lab.

The researchers add that the best way for a smoker to reduce their lung cancer risk is still to quit smoking because smokers who consume a glass of red wine a day are still much more likely to develop lung cancer than non-smokers.

The authors caution that the results should not be extrapolated to heavy alcohol consumption because beyond two glasses of red wine a day, the negative effects of alcohol begin to outweigh the benefits.

• Resveratrol, Found In Red Wine, Kills Pancreatic Cancer Cells
• Vitamin E Increases Lung Cancer Risk In Smokers
• Cancer Death Rates For Smokers Compared To Non-Smokers
• Eight Drinks A Day Raises Total Cancer Risk By 90%
• Heavy Drinking Raises Liver Cancer Risk

The researchers, based at the Harvard Medical School in Boston, used data from the Physicians’ Health Study which involved more than 20,000 men from the United States who were followed from 1984 to 1995.

The researchers found a positive trend between consumption of dairy products and the risk of developing prostate cancer. Those in the highest quintile for dairy product intake (more than 2.5 servings a day) were found to be 34% more likely to develop prostate cancer than those in the lowest quintile (less than 0.5 servings of dairy products a day).

Skim milk appeared to have the greatest effect on prostate cancer risk with those consuming at least one serving a day 32% more likely to develop prostate cancer than those who did not consume skim milk at all.

Calcium intake was also correlated with prostate cancer risk and it is believed that the high calcium levels in most dairy foods was responsible for their effect on prostate cancer. The researchers determined that each 500mg increase in calcium intake per day raised prostate cancer risk by 16%. The research was limited however in that calcium intake from supplements was not taken into account.

It it believed that calcium raises the risk of prostate cancer by reducing the action of a particular form of Vitamin D that is thought to suppress the growth of tumors in the prostate gland.

Doctors caution against reducing calcium intake in order to lower the risk of prostate cancer because of calcium’s ability to prevent the loss of bone density and the onset of osteoporosis. Men in particular however should be careful not to greatly exceed the recommended daily intake (RDA) of calcium through the excessive use of calcium supplements.

The current RDA for calcium is set at 1000mg per day for adults aged between 19 and 50 and 1200mg a day for adults over the age of 50.

• Folate May Reduce Pancreatic Cancer Risk
• Vitamin D Not Effective In Reducing Prostate Cancer Risk
• Vitamin E Supplementation Decreases Risk Of Prostate Cancer
• Eating Fish May Reduce Cancer Risk
• Diets High In Fat, Low In Fruit & Vegetables Linked To Bladder Cancer

The study involved the analysis of 38 previous research studies on the impact of diet on bladder cancer. The researchers looked at six dietary variables: high meat intake, high fat intake, low vegetable consumption, low fruit consumption, low intake of retinol (vitamin A), and low intake of beta-carotene.

Low fruit consumption, low vegetable consumption, and a high intake of fat were all linked to an increased risk of bladder cancer. Diets low in fruit were associated with a 40% increase in bladder cancer risk, diets low in vegetables led to a 16% increase in risk while diets high in fat were associated with a 37% increase in the risk of bladder cancer.

Diets low in beta-carotene were associated with a 10% increased risk of bladder cancer however this association was inconsistent across the studies and was not statistically significant. Both meat consumption and retinol intake did not appear to be associated with bladder cancer.

The authors concluded that: “The results of this meta-analysis support the hypothesis that diets high in vegetable and fruit intake and low in fat intake reduce the risk of bladder cancer”.

Bladder cancer is currently the sixth most common form of cancer in the United States with around 12,000 people dying from the disease each year. Bladder cancer is around twice as common in men than women and is slightly less common in African Americans and Asians compared to whites.

The most well established risk factor for bladder cancer is tobacco use with around 40% of all bladder cancers thought to be caused by cigarette smoking. Other risk factors for bladder cancer include low levels of fluid consumption, chronic bladder inflammation, a family history of bladder cancer, and occupational exposure to carcinogens such as benzadine. Around a third of all bladder cancers occur in people with no known risk factors for the disease.

• Fruit & Vegetable Consumption Lowers Pancreatic Cancer Risk
• Ten Easy Ways To Lower Your Cancer Risk
• Folate May Reduce Pancreatic Cancer Risk
• Abdominal Fat May Be Linked To Pancreatic Cancer
• Heavy Drinking Raises Liver Cancer Risk

The study, which was published back in 1998 by researchers at the Department of Public Health in Helsinki, Finland, looked at the effects of both beta-carotene and alpha-tocopherol on the risk of prostate cancer. Beta-carotene is an antioxidant that is converted by the body into Vitamin A. Alpha-tocopherol is the most common form of Vitamin E and is also the most beneficially in terms of antioxidant activity. It is also the form commonly used in Vitamin E supplements.

The study involved 29,133 males aged between 50 and 69 who were followed for a period of between 5 and 8 years. The researchers found that the men who received 50mg of Vitamin E a day over the study period were 32% less likely to develop prostate cancer and 41% less likely to die from prostate cancer. No such link was found between beta-carotene and prostate cancer however with the beta-carotene group experiencing a small but statistically insignificant increase in the risk of prostate cancer.

Neither beta-carotene nor Vitamin E appeared to increase the time between diagnosis of prostate cancer and death from the disease.

It is believed that Vitamin E may help reduce the risk of prostate cancer by improving the function of the immune system and by reducing free radical damage to DNA and proteins through its antioxidant properties.

Food sources rich in Vitamin E include (mg of alpha-tocopherol per serving included in brackets): wheat germ oil (20.3mg), almonds (7.4mg), peanuts (2.2mg), avocado (2.0mg), broccoli (1.5mg), kiwifruit (1.1mg), and spinach (0.6mg).

Prostate cancer is currently the most commonly diagnosed form of cancer in men with 1 in 6 developing the disease during their lifetimes. When detected at an early stage, prostate cancer carries a very good prognosis with a five year survival rate of over 99%.

• Diets High In Fat, Low In Fruit & Vegetables Linked To Bladder Cancer
• Vitamin E Increases Lung Cancer Risk In Smokers
• Vitamin D Not Effective In Reducing Prostate Cancer Risk
• Walnuts Slow Growth Of Breast Cancer Cells
• Folate May Reduce Pancreatic Cancer Risk

The study was carried out by researchers from Norwich in the United Kingdom and was published in the July issue of the journal PLoS One. Researchers followed 22 men aged between 57 and 70 who were at high risk of developing prostate cancer. The men were divided into two groups, the first group consumed 400g of broccoli a week while the second group consumed 400g of peas a week in addition to their normal diets.

The researchers found that broccoli altered the expression of certain genes thought to be involved in the formation and development of prostate cancer and that the changes suggested both a reduction in the risk of developing prostate cancer and a reduction in the probability of a slow growing, localized cancer becoming more aggressive. Men on the high pea diet however did not experience significant changes in gene expression.

The study backs up several other studies that have suggested consumption of cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, kale, cabbage, bok choy, brussel sprouts and watercress leads to a reduction in prostate cancer risk. Cruciferous vegetables contain powerful compounds such as glucosinolates, sulforaphanes, and isothiocyanates which are thought to inhibit the growth and development of cancerous cells. Peas on the other hand do not have these compounds.

According to lead author Richard Mithen of the Institute of Food Research in Britain, it is recommended that men, particularly those at a high risk of prostate cancer, should eat between two and three servings of cruciferous vegetables a week.

• Fruit & Vegetable Consumption Lowers Pancreatic Cancer Risk
• Ten Easy Ways To Lower Your Cancer Risk
• Two Drinks A Day Increases Breast Cancer Risk By 32%
• Regular Aspirin Use Leads To A Small Reduction In Breast Cancer Risk
• Exercise Reduces Colon Cancer Risk By Up To 44 Percent

The study, which was headed by Dr Juhua Luo of the Karolinska Institute in Sweden, involved the study of almost 140,000 post-menopausal women from the Women’s Health Initiative. The women were initially free of pancreatic cancer and were followed for an average period of 7.7 years.

During the study, 251 of the women developed pancreatic cancer. 78 of the women who developed pancreatic cancer were in the top quartile for waist to hip ratios while just 34 of the women were in the lowest quartile for waist to hip ratios. After adjusting for other factors such as smoking, age, and BMI, women in the top quartile for waist to hip ratio were 70% more likely to develop pancreatic cancer than women in the lowest quartile for waist to hip ratio.

The waist to hip ratio is found by measuring the circumference of the waist at the belly button and dividing it by the circumference of the hips at their widest point. An optimal waist to hip ratio is 0.7 for women and 0.9 for men. The waist to hip ratio has also been found to correlate with the risk of diabetes, heart disease, several forms of cancer, and even Alzheimer’s disease.

Pancreatic cancer is the most deadly form of cancer in the United States with just 2% of recently diagnosed individuals still alive five years later. Other risk factors thought to be associated with pancreatic cancer include smoking, diabetes, and diets high in red meat and saturated fat.

Males are slightly more susceptible to pancreatic cancer and the risk increases with age with the majority of pancreatic cancer cases diagnosed in individuals over the age of 60. Last year around 35,000 people died of pancreatic cancer in the United States making it the fourth highest cause of cancer death behind breast, colo-rectal, and lung cancer.

• Fruit & Vegetable Consumption Lowers Pancreatic Cancer Risk
• High Blood Sugar Raises Pancreatic, Liver, & Colorectal Cancer Risk
• Diabetics Are Less Likely To Develop Advanced Prostate Cancer
• Obesity Linked To Cancer Of Pancreas, Liver, Bladder & Prostate
• Folate May Reduce Pancreatic Cancer Risk

Recent studies have found a link between vitamin D levels and a reduction in the risk of many forms of cancer such as breast, colon, and lung cancer however studies on the relationship between vitamin D and prostate cancer have yielded mixed results to date.

In this particular study, American researchers looked at the concentrations of vitamin D found in the blood of 749 patients who had been diagnosed with prostate cancer and compared them to 781 control subjects who were free of prostate cancer,

The researchers found no statistically significant difference between the levels of vitamin D in the blood of the prostate cancer patients compared to the control subjects however aggressive prostate cancers were found to be more likely in those with high levels of vitamin D in the blood. Those in the highest quartile for vitamin D levels were found to have 60% greater odds of developing an aggressive form of prostate cancer than those in the lowest quartile for vitamin D levels.

The authors concluded that: “Higher levels of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D may not reduce the risk of prostate cancer; indeed, it is possible that higher levels are associated with increased risk of aggressive disease.”

Vitamin D is generally synthesized in the body through sunlight exposure but can also be obtained through fortified foods and dietary supplements. Vitamin D deficiency is relatively common amongst those who are unable to get adequate exposure to direct sunlight such as those living at extreme latitudes and the elderly.

It is thought vitamin D may prevent and/or slow down the growth of cancer by inhibiting certain enzymes involved in tumor invasion. It is also believed that vitamin D may reduce cancer cell growth and differentiation.

• High Blood Sugar Raises Pancreatic, Liver, & Colorectal Cancer Risk
• Diabetics Are Less Likely To Develop Advanced Prostate Cancer
• Vitamin E Increases Lung Cancer Risk In Smokers
• Vitamin & Mineral Supplementation Higher In Cancer Survivors
• Fruit & Vegetable Consumption Lowers Pancreatic Cancer Risk

The study was published this month in the British Journal of Cancer and involved the study of 40,708 Swedish men aged between 45 and 79 who were questioned on their exercise habits. The men were followed from 1998 to 2004 and over this time 3714 men (9.1%%) developed cancer and 1153 men (2.83%) died from the disease.

The researchers found that a one hour per day increase in physical activity was associated with a 2% decrease in the incidence of cancer and a 12% decrease in the risk of dying from cancer. Men who exercised regularly also had greater cancer survival rates than those who did little or no exercise.

Walking and cycling appeared to be particularly beneficial in cancer reduction. Those who spent an average of 30 minutes a day walking or cycling were 34% less likely to develop cancer and had 33% improved cancer survival rates compared to those who rarely walked or cycled.

The researchers also found that even relatively light activities such as doing household chores were beneficial in reducing the risk of developing or dying from cancer.

Diet was not considered in this study however it is likely that those men who exercised regularly made healthier dietary choices than the sedentary men and it is therefore possible that the results were due to healthier food choices made by the physically active men rather than the exercise itself.

• Exercise Reduces Colon Cancer Risk By Up To 44 Percent
• Obesity Linked To Cancer Of Pancreas, Liver, Bladder & Prostate
• Ten Easy Ways To Lower Your Cancer Risk
• Genetic Test For Prostate Cancer On The Horizon
• Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Sufferers Are Living Longer

The study, conducted by Italian researchers, involved the comparison of over 8,000 people who had been diagnosed with various forms of cancer with 7,990 control subjects who were free of cancer. The study participants were from northern Italy and were younger than 75 years.

The researchers compared fish consumption amongst the cancer patients with those who were free of cancer. Fish consumption was divided into three categories, infrequent fish consumption (less than once a week), occasional fish consumption (once a week), and regular fish consumption (more than once a week).

The researchers found a strong link between fish consumption and a decreased risk of many forms of cancer. The link was strongest for cancers of the oral cavity, pharynx, and rectum, which were 50% less common amongst people consuming 2 or more servings of fish a day compared to those who consumed less than one serving a day.

Cancers of the colon, and esophagus were 40% less likely in regular fish eaters, cancers of the pancreas, stomach, larynx, and ovary were 30% less likely, and cancers of the endometrium were 20% less likely compared to those who consumed fish less than once a week.

Regular fish consumption also appeared to reduce the risk of cancers of the prostate, kidney, and gallbladder as well as both Hodgkin disease and non-Hodgkin lymphoma although the link was less significant for these cancers.

The major findings of the study are presented in the graph below.

Fish contains essential fatty acids (EFA’s) including omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids as well as being rich in many vitamins such as vitamins A, D, E and K, and minerals such as calcium, iron, and phosphorus. Omega-3 fatty acids in particular have been shown to inhibit the growth of cancerous cells of the colon, prostate, and breast.

Most dietitians recommend people consume between 1 and 2 servings of fish a week. Some people are concerned that toxic substances in fish such as mercury may actually increase cancer risk however this study indicates that this is not necessarily the case. Even so, it is recommended that certain people such as pregnant mothers limit their consumption of certain fish known to contain high amounts of mercury. “Safe” fish that contain little or no mercury are generally the smaller fish varieties which includes salmon, cod, canned tuna, anchovies, sardines, mullet, herring, catfish, shrimp, and flounder.

• Ten Easy Ways To Lower Your Cancer Risk
• Heavy Drinking Ups Risk Of Cancer In Mouth, Esophagus, Breast & Liver
• Exercise Reduces Colon Cancer Risk By Up To 44 Percent
• Walnuts Slow Growth Of Breast Cancer Cells
• Eight Drinks A Day Raises Total Cancer Risk By 90%

The authors of the report reviewed the findings of 634 previous studies to determine the link between alcohol consumption and the risk of various cancers. In total, cancer risk was found to be 22% higher in people who consumed four alcoholic drinks a day compared to non-drinkers and 90% higher in those who consumed eight alcoholic drinks a day. On the other hand, consumption of two alcoholic drinks a day appeared to have little or no effect on cancer risk.

The researchers found conclusive evidence that moderate to heavy alcohol consumption raised the risk of cancer in the liver, breast, colon, stomach and upper-digestive tract while no link was found between alcohol and bladder, endometrial, or pancreatic cancer.

Cancers of the upper-digestive tract which includes the mouth, esophagus, larynx, and pharynx were four times more likely in those who consumed four alcoholic drinks a day and six times greater in those who consumed eight times a day compared to non-drinkers.

Breast cancer risk increased by around 10% with each additional alcoholic drink consumed, this equates to twice the risk of breast cancer for someone consuming an average of eight alcoholic drinks per day. It is believed that as many as 10% of all breast cancers might be attributable to alcohol.

Stomach cancer was only slightly associated with heavy alcohol consumption with eight drinks a day raising stomach cancer risk by around 30%.

Colo-rectal cancers did not appear to be associated with alcohol in women however heavy male drinkers were at a 60 to 80 percent greater risk of developing colo-rectal cancers than non-drinkers.

The results were the opposite for liver cancer with women drinkers appearing to be at a greater risk of liver cancer than men. Heavy male drinkers were 60% more likely to develop liver cancer while females were a massive nine times more likely to develop the disease compared to non-drinkers. Around 35% of all liver cancers are thought to be alcohol related.

Some evidence existed for a link between alcohol and prostate, kidney, lung, cervical, and ovarian cancers, however the evidence was not sufficient to draw definitive conclusions.

Many mechanisms have been proposed to explain the link between alcohol and cancer. Acetaldehyde, which is produced in the body when alcohol is metabolised, is a known carcinogen. Alcohol also impairs the bodies ability to absorb folate resulting in a folate deficiency in many heavy drinkers. Low folate levels have been implicated in the development of several forms of cancer including colo-rectal, breast, and pancreatic cancers. Alcohol is also known to increase estrogen levels which may explain its link with breast cancer.

Cancer is currently the second most common cause of death in the western world behind heart disease. Around 35% of women and almost half of all men will be diagnosed with cancer during their lifetimes and this figure is likely to rise as life expectancies continue to increase. Prostate cancer is the most common form of cancer in men while breast cancer is the most common in women.

It is thought as many as a third of all cancers are preventable through healthy lifestyle choices such as not smoking, consuming a variety of fresh fruits and vegetables, and being physically active.

• Heavy Drinking Raises Liver Cancer Risk
• Heavy Drinking Ups Risk Of Cancer In Mouth, Esophagus, Breast & Liver
• Two Drinks A Day Increases Breast Cancer Risk By 32%
• Folate May Reduce Pancreatic Cancer Risk
• Catechins In Green Tea Prevent Advanced Prostate Cancer

The study, conducted by Swedish researchers and published in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute in March 2006 involved the study of 81,922 men and women from Sweden for an average of 6.8 years.

During the study 135 of the participants developed pancreatic cancer. The researchers found that those who consumed more than 350 micrograms of folate from food per day were a massive 75% less likely to develop pancreatic cancer than those who consumed less than 200 micrograms per day. Interestingly folate intake from supplements did not lead to a reduction in pancreatic cancer risk suggesting that dietary sources of folate are superior to folate supplements in reducing pancreatic cancer risk.

Folate rich foods include corn, broccoli, eggs, peanuts, milk, oranges, grapes, strawberries, dried beans, beef liver, and green leafy vegetables such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and turnip greens. Folic acid is also added to breads/and or cereals in many countries including the United States.

The American recommended daily allowance (RDA) of folate for adults is currently set at 400 micrograms per day. Just one cup of cooked spinach or 150 grams of peanuts provides more than half of an adults daily folate requirement. Despite the abundance of folate in fruit and vegetables, it is thought that as many as half of American adults get less than the required amount of folate from food sources.

The results of this study are backed up by a similar study published in 2004 in the American Journal of Epidemiology. That study found a 34% reduction in pancreatic cancer in those in the highest category for folate intake compared to the lowest intake but a lack of association between folate from supplements and pancreatic cancer risk.

High folate intake has been linked to a reduction in heart disease, strokes, and colo-rectal cancer. Furthermore, folate may also reduce the risk of breast, esophageal, and lung cancer although the evidence is less conclusive in these cases.

• Dairy Products Linked To Increased Risk Of Prostate Cancer
• Fruit & Vegetable Consumption Lowers Pancreatic Cancer Risk
• Resveratrol, Found In Red Wine, Kills Pancreatic Cancer Cells
• Eight Drinks A Day Raises Total Cancer Risk By 90%
• Vitamin E Increases Lung Cancer Risk In Smokers

The study, conducted by researchers at the US National Cancer Institute in Rockville, USA, focused on 136,408 women aged between 51 and 72 and who were free of cancer at the beginning of the study in 1996-1997.

By the end of 2003, 4501 (3.3%) of the women had developed breast cancer. The study found no association between the use of non-aspirin NSAID’s and breast cancer or between occasional aspirin use and breast cancer. The study did however find that daily aspirin users were 7% less likely to develop breast cancer and in particular 16% less likely to develop ER-positive breast cancer than those who did not use aspirin at all.

Around 18% of the study participants reported daily aspirin use, a further 16% used aspirin 1 to 6 times a week, 32% used aspirin between once a week and once a year while 34% of the women had not used aspirin in the past year.

ER positive breast cancer is the most common form of breast cancer making up around 75% of total cases. ER positive cancer means the breast cancer cells have estrogen receptors on their surface. Breast cancers can also be classified as progesterone-receptor positive (PR+) or negative (PR-) depending on the presence of progesterone receptors on the cancerous cells . ER positive breast cancers typically have a slightly better prognosis than ER-negative breast cancers because they are more likely to respond to hormonal therapy.

Aspirin inhibits the action of the COX-2 enzyme which is responsible for inflammation and pain. The over expression of the COX-2 has been implicated in many steps of cancer development including the inhibition of cell death (apoptosis) and the increased division of cancerous cells.

• Two Drinks A Day Increases Breast Cancer Risk By 32%
• Lack Of Sleep Increases Breast Cancer Risk By Inhibiting Melatonin Production
• Resveratrol, Found In Red Wine, Kills Pancreatic Cancer Cells
• Walnuts Slow Growth Of Breast Cancer Cells
• Catechins In Green Tea Prevent Advanced Prostate Cancer

The study, published in the American Journal of Epidemiology in 2004, involved comparing the diabetes status of 1,110 individuals from the US Physicians Heath Study who had been diagnosed with prostate cancer and comparing them to 1,110 control subjects who were free of prostate cancer.

In the group which had prostate cancer, 50 (4.5%) of the individuals had been diagnosed with diabetes compared to 71 (6.4%) of the individuals in the control group. After adjusting the results for potential confounding factors, people with diabetes were 36% less likely to develop prostate cancer than those without diabetes.

The association was particularly strong for advanced stages of prostate cancer with diabetics 52% less likely to develop advanced prostate cancer. In contrast early stage prostate cancer was not found to be associated with diabetes.

Animal studies have found that diabetes tends to reduce both testosterone levels in the blood and the size of the prostate gland, however once insulin is administered to the animals testosterone and prostate gland size increase to normal levels. This suggests that low levels of insulin inhibits the production of testosterone. High circulating levels of testosterone have been found to increase prostate cancer risk in several studies.

Prostate cancer is the most common form of cancer in males with 18% of American men developing the disease and 3% dying from it. Prostate cancers tend to be slow growing and if detected early, prostate cancer carries a very good prognosis. The survival rate is 99.8% if prostate cancer is detected before it has metastasized.

• Catechins In Green Tea Prevent Advanced Prostate Cancer
• High Blood Sugar Raises Pancreatic, Liver, & Colorectal Cancer Risk
• Walnuts Slow Growth Of Breast Cancer Cells
• Study: Hypnosis Reduces Cost Of Breast Cancer Surgery
• Abdominal Fat May Be Linked To Pancreatic Cancer

The study, published in the journal Preventive Medicine in 2004, involved the analysis of data from 156 studies involving a total of 116,702 individuals in order to determine the effects of alcohol consumption on cancer rates.

Researchers found that alcohol consumption was strongly associated with cancer of the larynx, esophagus, pharynx, and oral cavity. Alcohol consumption was also found to be weakly associated with cancer of the breast, liver, rectum, and colon.

At a level of 25g/day of ethanol consumption, the equivalent of two beers a day, there was an 86% greater risk of developing cancers of the oral cavity and pharynx, a 43% and 39% greater risk of cancers of the larynx and esophagus respectively, a 25% greater risk of breast cancer and a 19% greater risk of liver cancer. Cancers of the colon and rectum were only weakly associated with this level of alcohol consumption.

In those people that consumed 100g of ethanol per day, the equivalent of eight beers per day, the risk of cancer rose dramatically. Cancers of the oral cavity and pharynx showed a 554% increase, cancer of the larynx and esophagus increased by 286% and 259% respectively, breast cancer by 141%, liver cancer by 81%, and rectal and colon cancers by 42% and 21% respectively.

Cancers in other areas such as the stomach, pancreas, and prostate were not found to be linked to alcohol use.

In total, studies estimate that around 3.6% of all cancers worldwide are attributable to alcohol consumption. The figure is 5.2% in men and 1.7% in women due to the large percentage of heavy drinkers being male. In women, breast cancers make up around 60% of the cancer cases attributable to alcohol.

Despite the increased risks, alcohol consumption is still a relatively minor cancer risk factor compared to other factors such as obesity and smoking. Cigarette and tobacco use is the single largest cause of cancer with an estimated 30% of all cancers worldwide attributable to cigarette smoking.

• Heavy Drinking Raises Liver Cancer Risk
• Eight Drinks A Day Raises Total Cancer Risk By 90%
• Eating Fish May Reduce Cancer Risk
• Cancer Death Rates For Smokers Compared To Non-Smokers
• High Blood Sugar Raises Pancreatic, Liver, & Colorectal Cancer Risk

A recent study, published in the American Journal of Epidemiology in 2002, compared the alcohol consumption histories of 464 people who had been diagnosed with hepatocellular carcinoma to the drinking history of 828 control subjects who were free of hepatocellular carcinoma and other liver diseases.

The researchers found that as “peak” intake of alcohol increased, so did the odds of a person developing liver cancer. Peak intake was defined as the maximum intake of alcohol in a decade of an individuals lifetime.

In men, no significant correlation between alcohol and liver cancer was observed at levels less than 60g/day of ethanol. Those who consumed between 61 and 80g/day had 2.4 times greater odds of developing liver cancer than those who consumed no alcohol while those who consumed 81-100g/day of ethanol had 4.2 times greater odds of developing the disease. Those men who consumed the most ethanol (more than 140g/day) had 11 times greater odds of developing liver cancer. One can of beer typically contains between 10 and 15g of alcohol.

In women those who consumed between 60 and 80g of ethanol were 3.1 times more likely to develop liver cancer compared to women who did not drink while women who consumed more than 80g of ethanol per day were 16.5 times more likely to develop liver cancer.

Around 10% of the men in the study claimed to have consumed more than 140g of ethanol a day during their “peak” decade while around 5% of women claimed to have consumed more than 80g of ethanol per day. 140g/day of ethanol is the equivalent to a hefty 10 standard drinks of alcohol per day.

The researchers also looked at the participants age when drinking began and the duration of drinking however neither of these factors was associated with liver cancer.

The authors concluded that “the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma increased with increasing level of alcohol intake, irrespective of duration of consumption and age at start”.

It is believed that chronic consumption of ethanol may have carcinogenic effects on certain organs, especially the liver which must process the alcohol. Excessive alcohol consumption also leads to cirrhosis of the liver which often leads to liver cancer.

Hepatocellular carcinoma is the most common form of liver cancer making up over 90% of all liver cancers. Liver cancer carries an extremely poor prognosis with just 10% of people living for more than 5 years after diagnosis with the disease. Only pancreatic cancer has a worse 5 year survival rate.

• Heavy Drinking Ups Risk Of Cancer In Mouth, Esophagus, Breast & Liver
• Eight Drinks A Day Raises Total Cancer Risk By 90%
• Two Drinks A Day Increases Breast Cancer Risk By 32%
• Catechins In Green Tea Prevent Advanced Prostate Cancer
• Obesity Linked To Cancer Of Pancreas, Liver, Bladder & Prostate

The research, conducted by the National Cancer Institute looked at data from 184,418 women in order to explore the link between breast cancer and alcohol consumption.

During the seven year study period, 5,461 women developed breast cancer with 70% of the women in the study reporting some alcohol consumption during the study. The researchers found that alcohol consumption was associated with an increase in a particular type of breast cancer called ER+/PR+ where both estrogen receptors and progesterone receptors are over expressed.

This form of cancer was found to be 7% more likely in women who consumed less than one drink a day compared to those who did not consume alcohol. Those who consumed between one and two standard drinks a day were 32% more likely to develop breast cancer and those who consumed three or more standard drinks a day were 51% more likely to develop breast cancer. The increased risks remained the same regardless of whether the women consumed beer, wine, or spirits.

The researchers found alcohol consumption also increased the risk of the relatively rare ER+/PR- form of breast cancer where only estrogen receptors are over expressed. Alcohol consumption was not associated with an increased risk of developing ER-/PR- breast cancer where neither of the receptors are over expressed.

Around 70% of all breast cancer cases show over expression of estrogen receptors with ER+/PR+ the most common form of breast cancer in women. It is thought that over expression of estrogen receptors is linked to breast cancer by two mechanisms. First estrogen receptors are thought to stimulate the growth and replication of mammary cells which are found in the breast. Increased replication of cells increases the chances of a cancer causing mutation occurring. Secondly estrogen receptor over expression increases estrogen metabolism. One of the metabolic pathways by which estrogen is broken down is known to result in several cancer causing products.

The researchers believe that alcohol interferes with the metabolism of estrogen, which in turn leads to an increased risk of estrogen sensitive breast cancer.

The research is to be presented at the 2008 annual meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research which is held between April 12 and 16 in San Diego.

• Eight Drinks A Day Raises Total Cancer Risk By 90%
• Heavy Drinking Raises Liver Cancer Risk
• Regular Aspirin Use Leads To A Small Reduction In Breast Cancer Risk
• Heavy Drinking Ups Risk Of Cancer In Mouth, Esophagus, Breast & Liver
• Broccoli Rich Diets Ward Off Prostate Cancer

The largest study of the impact of smoking on the probability of developing cancer is the Cancer Prevention Study 2, which was funded by the American Cancer society. The study involved over 1.2 million people so provides quite accurate data on the precise risks of cancer from smoking.

The American Cancer society calculated the following relative risks of some common forms of cancer for smokers, they are listed below for men, and women respectively.

Lung cancer: 23.3 (men) & 12.7 (women)
Cancers of larynx: 14.6 & 13
Cancers of mouth, lip & pharynx: 10.9 & 5.1
Esophageal cancer: 6.6 & 7.8
Pancreatic cancers: 2.3 for both men & women
Stomach cancers: 2.0 & 1.4
Cervical cancer: 1.6 (women)
Bladder cancer: 3.2 & 2.2
Kidney & other urinary cancers: 2.7 & 1.3
Acute myeloid leukemia: 1.9 & 1.1

Of these, lung cancer is by far the most common cancer and it also carries the highest relative risk for men and second highest for women. It is thought the average smoker has about a 1 in 6 chance (16%) of developing lung cancer in their lifetime. The average non-smoker on the other hand has less than a 1% chance of developing lung cancer in their lifetime.

It is also interesting to view the percentage of cancer deaths for each cancer type that are attributable to smoking.

Lung: 80%
Cancer of the Larynx: 78%
Cancer of the Esophagus: 74%
Cancers of the Mouth, lip & pharynx: 61%
Bladder: 39%
Cancer of the Pancreas: 22%
Kidney: 21%
Stomach: 20%
Acute Myeloid Leukemia: 17%
Cervix: 13%

Smoking is also responsible for an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases such as coronary and ischemic heart disease, strokes, and aneurysms because it causes hypertension (chronic high blood pressure) and atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries). Smoking also increases the risk of developing, and subsequently dying from other lung diseases such as pneumonia and bronchitis.

The good news is that after quitting smoking, much of the damage caused by smoking is reversible. The risks of developing smoking related cancers falls to the same or similar levels as non-smokers after about 15 to 20 years.

After 20 years without smoking, an ex-smokers risk of developing lung cancer is just 1.5 times higher than someone who has never smoked and is around 10 times lower than it would be had they smoked for those 20 years.

• Vitamin E Increases Lung Cancer Risk In Smokers
• Red Wine May Reduce Lung Cancer Risk In Smokers
• Heavy Drinking Ups Risk Of Cancer In Mouth, Esophagus, Breast & Liver
• Eight Drinks A Day Raises Total Cancer Risk By 90%
• Obesity Linked To Cancer Of Pancreas, Liver, Bladder & Prostate

One of the largest studies on the relationship between fruit and vegetable consumption and pancreatic cancer risk was published in September 2005 in the journal Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. The study involved analyzing the dietary habits of 532 individuals diagnosed with pancreatic cancer and comparing them to 1,701 healthy individuals.

After controlling for age at time of diagnosis, gender, and total calories consumed per day, those in the highest quartile for vegetable consumption had 55% reduced odds of developing pancreatic cancer compared to those in the lowest quartile of vegetable consumption. Those in the highest quartile of fruit and fruit juice consumption had 28% reduced odds of developing pancreatic cancer compared to those in the lowest quartile of fruit consumption. The major findings of the study are presented in the graph below.

The vegetables that appeared to provide the greatest reduction in pancreatic cancer were dark green vegetables such as spinach and silver beet. Yellow vegetables, carrots, beans, onions, garlic, and cruciferous vegetables such as cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, bok choy, and turnips were also strongly correlated with a reduction in pancreatic cancer risk. Potatoes, tomatoes, and light green vegetables were not associated with a reduction in pancreatic cancer risk.

Furthermore, those who consumed more than nine servings of fruit and vegetables a day had 51% reduced odds of pancreatic cancer compared to those eating less than five servings of fruit and vegetables.

Raw vegetables appeared to reduce pancreatic cancer risk more so than cooked vegetables. Cooking vegetables in animal fat was associated with an increased risk of pancreatic cancer compared to those who didn’t cook vegetables in animal fat.

Pancreatic cancer is a significant health problem in the United States due to both it’s difficulty to detect and treat. Pancreatic cancer sufferers have a poorer prognosis than any other form of cancer with just 3-4% of those diagnosed with pancreatic cancer still alive five years after the diagnosis. In the United States, pancreatic cancer is behind only breast, colo-rectal, and lung cancer in terms of cancer deaths per year. Pancreatic cancer is about 50% more common in men compared to women and effects blacks around 30% more than whites.

The incidence of pancreatic cancer increases dramatically with age. More than 80% of pancreatic cancer cases are diagnosed in people over the age of 60. While age standardized rates of pancreatic cancer appear to be quite stable, the number of cases diagnosed each year will continue to increase as the population ages.

While the underlying causes of pancreatic cancer are to a large extent unknown - smoking, obesity, low consumption of fruit and vegetables, high fasting blood sugar levels, and diabetes appear to be risk factors for the disease.

• Diets High In Fat, Low In Fruit & Vegetables Linked To Bladder Cancer
• Abdominal Fat May Be Linked To Pancreatic Cancer
• Folate May Reduce Pancreatic Cancer Risk
• Vitamin D Not Effective In Reducing Prostate Cancer Risk
• Heavy Drinking Raises Liver Cancer Risk